Summary of "Political Science 3.2"

Summary — Political Science 3.2 (part 2)

This lecture surveys three major political/ethical traditions — utilitarianism, Marxism, and social contract theory — explaining core concepts, giving key examples or thought experiments, and noting major criticisms or limits.

Utilitarianism

Core idea:

An ethical theory that evaluates actions by their consequences for overall happiness or well‑being.
Principle: the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number.

“The morally right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number.”

Key figures:

Jeremy Bentham
John Stuart Mill

Trolley dilemma (thought experiment):

Variant A (switch): A runaway trolley will kill five people unless you divert it onto another track where it will kill one person. Many judge it permissible/required to switch.
Variant B (push): Standing on a bridge you could push a very heavy man into the trolley’s path to stop it and save five. Many judge pushing wrong, despite the same numbers.
Utilitarian verdict: In both variants a utilitarian chooses the action that minimizes total harm (sacrifice one to save five), because only consequences matter.

Practical decision steps (utilitarian reasoning):

Identify the available options/actions.
For each option, estimate likely outcomes for all affected people (happiness/utility and pain).
Weigh and compare net utility (aggregate benefits minus harms) across options.
Choose the option with the highest total net utility.

Lesson:

Utilitarianism focuses on aggregate outcomes and can conflict with intuitive moral judgments in cases where means, rights, or using someone as a mere means matter to many people.

Marxism

Core idea:

A political and economic theory (Karl Marx) that explains social change through class conflict between those who own the means of production and those who sell their labor.

Key concepts:

Classes have opposing interests (owners/ruling class vs. working class).
Exploitation: capitalists extract value by paying workers less than the value of their labor.
Historical materialism / theory of history: social change results from class struggles that can culminate in revolution.
Revolutionary outcome (as presented): the proletariat (working class) overthrows the bourgeoisie (ruling class), abolishes private property and class hierarchies, and moves toward a classless society.

Sources cited:

Karl Marx
Friedrich Engels
The Communist Manifesto

Criticisms and practical challenges:

Marx’s prediction of an inevitable proletarian revolution and universal establishment of socialism did not unfold as forecast.
Attempts to build socialist societies encountered problems: complexity of modern societies, tendencies toward authoritarianism, global economic competition, and political opposition.
Mixed empirical record — some achievements in certain contexts but significant obstacles and failures elsewhere.

Social Contract Theory

Core idea:

Political philosophy that explains the origin and legitimacy of the state as arising from a (hypothetical) agreement among individuals who consent to give up some freedoms in return for protection and benefits provided by the state.

Key points:

The state is not a natural given but a product of human agreement.
The social contract specifies the terms of the relationship between individuals and the state (what rights are surrendered and what protections are gained).

Philosophers referenced: